A transfer-appropriate model of memory, relying on the distinction between episodic and abstraction-based processing has been developed to account for the differential efficacy of analogical and other schematic retrieval aids for 1) individuals who have engaged in either simple or complex encoding of the material, and 2) younger and older adults. In general, such aids are beneficial for people who have engaged in previous complex encoding, or for younger adults. In contrast, they do not help, and may impair, the performance of those who have engaged in simple encoding, or of older adults. In addition, the approach is being extended to the investigation of autographical memory and to the learning of formal rule system.